Cephes Mathematical Library


Documentation for single.zip.
Documentation for double.zip.
Documentation for ldouble.zip.
Documentation for 128bit.shar.gz.
Documentation for qlib.zip.

Extended Precision Special Functions Suite Documentation

These are high precision a priori check routines used mainly to design and test lower precision function programs. For standard precision codes, see the archives and descriptions listed above.
Select function name for additional information.

 

  • qacosh.c, hyperbolic arccosine
  • qairy.c, Airy functions
  • qasin.c, circular arcsine
  • qacos.c, circular arccosine
  • qasinh.c, hyperbolic arcsine
  • qatanh.c, hyperbolic arctangent
  • qatn.c, circular arctangent
  • qatn2.c, quadrant correct arctangent
  • qbeta.c, beta function
  • qcbrt.c, cube root
  • qcgamma.c, complex gamma function
  • qclgam.c, log of complex gamma function
  • qchyp1f1.c, complex confluent hypergeometric function
  • qcmplx.c, complex arithmetic
  • qcos.c, circular cosine
  • qcosh.c, hyperbolic cosine
  • qcpolylog.c, complex polylogarithms
  • qdawsn.c, Dawson's integral
  • qei.c, exponential integral
  • qellie.c, incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind
  • qellik.c, incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind
  • qellpe.c, complete elliptic integral of the second kind
  • qellpj.c, Jacobian elliptic ntegral
  • qellpk.c, complete elliptic integral of the first kind
  • qerf.c, error function
  • qerfc.c, complementary error function
  • qeuclid.c, rational arithmetic
  • qexp.c, exponential function
  • qexp10.c, antilogarithm
  • qexp2.c, base 2 exponential function
  • qexpn.c, exponential integral
  • qfloor.c, floor, round
  • qflt.c, extended precision floating point routines
  • qflta.c, extended precision floating point utilities
  • qfresnl.c, Fresnel integrals
  • qlgam.c, log of gamma function
  • qgamma.c, gamma function
  • qhyp2f1.c, Gauss hypergeometric function 2F1
  • qhyp.c, Confluent hypergeometric function 1F1
  • qigam.c, incomplete gamma integral
  • qigami.c, inverse of incomplete gamma integral
  • qin.c, modified Bessel function I of noninteger order
  • qincb.c, incomplete beta integral
  • qincbi.c, inverse of incomplete beta integral
  • qine.c, modified Bessel function I of noninteger order, exponentially scaled
  • qjn.c, Bessel function noninteger order
  • qkn.c, modified Bessel function of the third kind, integer order
  • qkne.c, modified Bessel function of the third kind, integer order, exponentially scaled
  • qlog.c, natural logarithm
  • qlog1.c, relative error logarithm
  • qlog10.c, common logarithm
  • qndtr.c, normal distribution function
  • qndtri.c, inverse of normal distribution function
  • qpolylog.c, polylogarithms
  • qpolyr.c, arithmetic on polynomials with rational coefficients
  • qpow.c, power function
  • qprob.c, various probability integrals
  • qbdtr, binomial distribution
  • qbdtrc, complemented binomial distribution
  • qbdtri, inverse of binomial distribution
  • qchdtr, chi-square distribution
  • qchdtc, complemented chi-square distribution
  • qchdti, inverse of chi-square distribution
  • qfdtr, F distribution
  • qfdtrc, complemented F distribution
  • qfdtri, inverse F distribution
  • qgdtr, gamma distribution
  • qgdtrc, complemented gamma distribution
  • qnbdtr, negative binomial distribution
  • qnbdtc, complemented negative binomial distribution
  • qpdtr, Poisson distribution
  • qpdtrc, complemented Poisson distribution
  • qpdtri, inverse Poisson distribution
  • qpsi, psi function
  • qrand.c, pseudoradom number generator
  • qshici.c, hypberbolic sine and cosine integrals
  • qsici.c, sine and cosine integrals
  • qsimq.c, simultaneous linear equations
  • qsin.c, circular sine
  • qsindg.c, circular sine of arg in degrees
  • qsinh.c, hyperbolic sine
  • qspenc.c, dilogarithm
  • qsqrt.c, square root
  • qsqrta.c, rounded square root
  • qstdtr.c, Student's t distribution
  • qtan.c, circular tangent
  • qcot.c, circular cotangent
  • qtanh.c, hyperbolic tangent
  • qyn.c, Bessel function of the secnod kind
  • qzetac.c, Riemann zeta function
  •  
    /*							qacosh.c
     *
     *	Inverse hyperbolic cosine
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qacosh( x, y )
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qacosh( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * acosh(x)  =  log( x + sqrt( (x-1)(x+1) ).
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qairy.c
     *
     *	Airy functions
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qairy( x, ai, aip, bi, bip );
     * QELT *x, *ai, *aip, *bi, *bip;
     *
     * qairy( x, ai, aip, bi, bip );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Solution of the differential equation
     *
     *	y"(x) = xy.
     *
     * The function returns the two independent solutions Ai, Bi
     * and their first derivatives Ai'(x), Bi'(x).
     *
     * Evaluation is by power series summation for small x,
     * by asymptotic expansion for large x.
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * The asymptotic expansion is truncated at less than full working precision.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qasin.c
     *
     *	Inverse circular sine
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qasin( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qasin( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns radian angle between -pi/2 and +pi/2 whose sine is x.
     *
     *    asin(x) = arctan (x / sqrt(1 - x^2))
     *
     * If |x| > 0.5 it is transformed by the identity
     *
     *    asin(x) = pi/2 - 2 asin( sqrt( (1-x)/2 ) ).
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qacos
     *
     *	Inverse circular cosine
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qacos( x, y );
     * QELT x[], y[];
     *
     * qacos( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns radian angle between 0 and pi whose cosine
     * is x.
     *
     * acos(x) = pi/2 - asin(x)
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qasinh.c
     *
     *	Inverse hyperbolic sine
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qasinh( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qasinh( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns inverse hyperbolic sine of argument.
     *
     *     asinh(x) = log( x + sqrt(1 + x*x) ).
     *
     * For very large x, asinh(x) = log x  +  log 2.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qatanh.c
     *
     *	Inverse hyperbolic tangent
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qatanh( x, y );
     * QELT x[], y[];
     *
     * qatanh( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns inverse hyperbolic tangent of argument.
     *
     *        atanh(x) = 0.5 * log( (1+x)/(1-x) ).
     *
     * For very small x, the first few terms of the Taylor series
     * are summed.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qatn
     *
     *	Inverse circular tangent
     *      (arctangent)
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qatn( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qatn( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns radian angle between -pi/2 and +pi/2 whose tangent
     * is x.
     *
     * Range reduction is from three intervals into the interval
     * from zero to pi/8.
     *
     *                     2     2     2
     *               x    x   4 x   9 x
     * arctan(x) =  ---  ---  ----  ----  ...
     *              1 -  3 -  5 -   7 -
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qatn2
     *
     *	Quadrant correct inverse circular tangent
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qatn2( y, x, z );
     * QELT *x, *y, *z;
     *
     * qatn2( y, x, z );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns radian angle -PI < z < PI whose tangent is y/x.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qbeta.c
     *
     *	Beta function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qbeta( a, b, y );
     * QELT *a, *b, *y;
     *
     * qbeta( a, b, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     *                   -     -
     *                  | (a) | (b)
     * beta( a, b )  =  -----------.
     *                     -
     *                    | (a+b)
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qcbrt.c
     *
     *	Cube root
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qcbrt( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qcbrt( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the cube root of the argument, which may be negative.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qcgamma
     *
     *	Complex gamma function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qcgamma( x, y );
     * qcmplx *x, *y;
     *
     * qcgamma( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns complex-valued gamma function of the complex argument.
     *
     * gamma(x) = exp (log(gamma(x)))
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qclgam
     *
     *	Natural logarithm of complex gamma function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qclgam( x, y );
     * qcmplx *x, *y;
     *
     * qclgam( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the base e (2.718...) logarithm of the complex gamma
     * function of the argument.
     *
     * The logarithm of the gamma function is approximated by the
     * logarithmic version of Stirling's asymptotic formula.
     * Arguments of real part less than +32 are increased by recurrence.
     * The cosecant reflection formula is employed for arguments
     * having real part less than -34.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*                                                          qchyp1f1.c
     *
     *	confluent hypergeometric function
     *
     *                          1           2
     *                       a x    a(a+1) x
     *   F ( a,b;x )  =  1 + ---- + --------- + ...
     *  1 1                  b 1!   b(b+1) 2!
     *
     *
     * Series summation terminates at 70 bits accuracy.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*				qcmplx.c
     * Q type complex number arithmetic
     *
     * The syntax of arguments in
     *
     * cfunc( a, b, c )
     *
     * is
     * c = b + a
     * c = b - a
     * c = b * a
     * c = b / a.
     */
    
     
    /*							qcos.c
     *
     *	Circular cosine
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qcos( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qcos( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * cos(x) = sin(pi/2 - x)
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qcosh.c
     *
     *	Hyperbolic cosine
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qcosh(x, y);
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qcosh(x, y);
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * cosh(x)  =  ( exp(x) + exp(-x) )/2.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*
                                                            qcpolylog.c
       Complex polylogarithms.
    
    
                   inf   k
                    -   x
       Li (x)  =    >   ---
         n          -     n
                   k=1   k
    
    
                     x
                      -
                     | |  -ln(1-t)
        Li (x)  =    |    -------- dt
          2        | |       t
                    -
                     0
    
    
                    1-x
                      -
                     | |  ln t
                =    |    ------ dt   =   spence(1-x)
                   | |    1 - t
                    -
                     1
    
    
                            2       3
                           x       x
                 =  x  +  ---  +  ---  +  ...
                           4       9
    
    
      d                 1
      --   Li (x)  =   ---  Li   (x)
      dx     n          x     n-1
    
      */
    
     
    /*							qdawsn.c
     *
     *	Dawson's Integral
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qdawsn( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qdawsn( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Approximates the integral
     *
     *                             x
     *                             -
     *                      2     | |        2
     *  dawsn(x)  =  exp( -x  )   |    exp( t  ) dt
     *                          | |
     *                           -
     *                           0
     *
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Series expansions are truncated at NBITS/2.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qei.c
     *
     *	Exponential integral
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qei( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     *               x
     *                -     t
     *               | |   e
     *    Ei(x) =   -|-   ---  dt .
     *             | |     t
     *              -
     *             -inf
     * 
     * Not defined for x <= 0.
     * See also qexpn.c.
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Series truncated at NBITS/2.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qellie.c
     *
     *	Incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qellie( phi, m, y );
     * QELT *phi, *m, *y;
     *
     * qellie( phi, m, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Approximates the integral
     *
     *
     *                phi
     *                 -
     *                | |
     *                |                   2
     * E(phi_\m)  =    |    sqrt( 1 - m sin t ) dt
     *                |
     *              | |    
     *               -
     *                0
     *
     * of amplitude phi and modulus m, using the arithmetic -
     * geometric mean algorithm.
     *
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Sequence terminates at NBITS/2.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qellik.c
     *
     *	Incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qellik( phi, m, y );
     * QELT *phi, *m, *y;
     *
     * qellik( phi, m, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Approximates the integral
     *
     *
     *
     *                phi
     *                 -
     *                | |
     *                |           dt
     * F(phi_\m)  =    |    ------------------
     *                |                   2
     *              | |    sqrt( 1 - m sin t )
     *               -
     *                0
     *
     * of amplitude phi and modulus m, using the arithmetic -
     * geometric mean algorithm.
     *
     *
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Sequence terminates at NBITS/2.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qellpe.c
     *
     *	Complete elliptic integral of the second kind
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qellpe(x, y);
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qellpe(x, y);
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Approximates the integral
     *
     *
     *            pi/2
     *             -
     *            | |                 2
     * E(m)  =    |    sqrt( 1 - m sin t ) dt
     *          | |    
     *           -
     *            0
     *
     * Where m = 1 - m1, using the arithmetic-geometric mean method.
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Method terminates at NBITS/2.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qellpj.c
     *
     *	Jacobian Elliptic Functions
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qellpj( u, m, sn, cn, dn, ph );
     * QELT *u, *m;
     * QELT *sn, *cn, *dn, *ph;
     *
     * qellpj( u, m, sn, cn, dn, ph );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     *
     * Evaluates the Jacobian elliptic functions sn(u|m), cn(u|m),
     * and dn(u|m) of parameter m between 0 and 1, and real
     * argument u.
     *
     * These functions are periodic, with quarter-period on the
     * real axis equal to the complete elliptic integral
     * ellpk(1.0-m).
     *
     * Relation to incomplete elliptic integral:
     * If u = ellik(phi,m), then sn(u|m) = sin(phi),
     * and cn(u|m) = cos(phi).  Phi is called the amplitude of u.
     *
     * Computation is by means of the arithmetic-geometric mean
     * algorithm, except when m is within 1e-9 of 0 or 1.  In the
     * latter case with m close to 1, the approximation applies
     * only for phi < pi/2.
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Truncated at 70 bits.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qellpk.c
     *
     *	Complete elliptic integral of the first kind
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qellpk(x, y);
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qellpk(x, y);
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Approximates the integral
     *
     *
     *
     *            pi/2
     *             -
     *            | |
     *            |           dt
     * K(m)  =    |    ------------------
     *            |                   2
     *          | |    sqrt( 1 - m sin t )
     *           -
     *            0
     *
     * where m = 1 - m1, using the arithmetic-geometric mean method.
     *
     * The argument m1 is used rather than m so that the logarithmic
     * singularity at m = 1 will be shifted to the origin; this
     * preserves maximum accuracy.
     *
     * K(0) = pi/2.
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Truncated at NBITS/2.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qerf.c
     *
     *	Error function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qerf( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qerf( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * The integral is
     *
     *                           x 
     *                            -
     *                 2         | |          2
     *   erf(x)  =  --------     |    exp( - t  ) dt.
     *              sqrt(pi)   | |
     *                          -
     *                           0
     *
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qerfc.c
     *
     *	Complementary error function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qerfc( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qerfc( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     *
     *  1 - erf(x) =
     *
     *                           inf. 
     *                             -
     *                  2         | |          2
     *   erfc(x)  =  --------     |    exp( - t  ) dt
     *               sqrt(pi)   | |
     *                           -
     *                            x
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qeuclid.c
     *
     * Rational arithmetic routines
     *
     * radd( a, b, c )	c = b + a
     * rsub( a, b, c )	c = b - a
     * rmul( a, b, c )	c = b * a
     * rdiv( a, b, c )	c = b / a
     * euclid( n, d )	Reduce n/d to lowest terms, return g.c.d.
     *
     * Note: arguments are assumed,
     * without checking,
     * to be integer valued.
     */
    
     
    /*							qexp.c
     *
     *	Exponential function check routine
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qexp( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qexp( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns e (2.71828...) raised to the x power.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							exp10.c
     *
     *	Base 10 exponential function
     *      (Common antilogarithm)
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qexp10( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qexp10( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns 10 raised to the x power.
     *
     *   x      x ln 10
     * 10   =  e
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qexp2.c
     *
     *	Check routine for base 2 exponential function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qexp2( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qexp2( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns 2 raised to the x power.
     *
     *        x      ln 2  x      x ln 2
     * y  =  2  = ( e     )   =  e
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qexpn.c
     *
     *		Exponential integral En
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qexpn( n, x, y );
     * int n;
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qexpn( n, x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Evaluates the exponential integral
     *
     *                 inf.
     *                   -
     *                  | |   -xt
     *                  |    e
     *      E (x)  =    |    ----  dt.
     *       n          |      n
     *                | |     t
     *                 -
     *                  1
     *
     *
     * Both n and x must be nonnegative.
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     * 
     * Series expansions are truncated at less than full working precision.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qfloor.c 
     * qfloor - largest integer not greater than x
     * qround - nearest integer to x
     */
    
     
    /*							qflt.c
     *			QFLOAT
     *
     *	Extended precision floating point routines
     *
     *	asctoq( string, q )	ascii string to q type
     *	dtoq( &d, q )		DEC double precision to q type
     *	etoq( &d, q )		IEEE double precision to q type
     *	e24toq( &d, q )		IEEE single precision to q type
     *	e113toq( &d, q )	128-bit long double precision to q type
     *	ltoq( &l, q )		long integer to q type
     *	qabs(q)			absolute value
     *	qadd( a, b, c )		c = b + a
     *	qclear(q)		q = 0
     *	qcmp( a, b )		compare a to b
     *	qdiv( a, b, c )		c = b / a
     *	qifrac( x, &l, frac )   x to integer part l and q type fraction
     *	qfrexp( x, l, y )	find exponent l and fraction y between .5 and 1
     *	qldexp( x, l, y )	multiply x by 2^l
     *	qinfin( x )		set x to infinity, leaving its sign alone
     *	qmov( a, b )		b = a
     *	qmul( a, b, c )		c = b * a
     *	qmuli( a, b, c )	c = b * a, a has only 16 significant bits
     *	qisneg(q)		returns sign of q
     *	qneg(q)			q = -q
     *	qnrmlz(q)		adjust exponent and mantissa
     *	qsub( a, b, c )		c = b - a
     *	qtoasc( a, s, n )	q to ASCII string, n digits after decimal
     *	qtod( q, &d )		convert q type to DEC double precision
     *	qtoe( q, &d )		convert q type to IEEE double precision
     *	qtoe24( q, &d )		convert q type to IEEE single precision
     *	qtoe113( q, &d )	convert q type to 128-bit long double precision
     *
     * Data structure of the number (a "word" is 16 bits)
     *
     *	sign word		(0 for positive, -1 for negative)
     *	exponent		(EXPONE for 1.0)
     *	high guard word		(always zero after normalization)
     *	N-1 mantissa words	(most significant word first,
     *				 most significant bit is set)
     *
     * Numbers are stored in C language as arrays.  All routines
     * use pointers to the arrays as arguments.
     *
     * The result is always normalized after each arithmetic operation.
     * All arithmetic results are chopped. No rounding is performed except
     * on conversion to double precision.
     */
    
     
    /*		qflta.c
     * Utilities for extended precision arithmetic, called by qflt.c.
     * These should all be written in machine language for speed.
     *
     * addm( x, y )		add significand of x to that of y
     * shdn1( x )		shift significand of x down 1 bit
     * shdn8( x )		shift significand of x down 8 bits
     * shdn16( x )		shift significand of x down 16 bits
     * shup1( x )		shift significand of x up 1 bit
     * shup8( x )		shift significand of x up 8 bits
     * shup16( x )		shift significand of x up 16 bits
     * divm( a, b )		divide significand of a into b
     * mulm( a, b )		multiply significands, result in b
     * mdnorm( x )		normalize and round off
     *
     * Copyright (c) 1984 - 1988 by Stephen L. Moshier.  All rights reserved.
     */
    
     
    /*							qfresnl
     *
     *	Fresnel integral
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qfresnl( x, s, c );
     * QELT *x, *s, *c;
     *
     * qfresnl( x, s, c );
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Evaluates the Fresnel integrals
     *
     *           x
     *           -
     *          | |
     * C(x) =   |   cos(pi/2 t**2) dt,
     *        | |
     *         -
     *          0
     *
     *           x
     *           -
     *          | |
     * S(x) =   |   sin(pi/2 t**2) dt.
     *        | |
     *         -
     *          0
     *
     *
     * The integrals are evaluated by a power series for x < 1.
     * For large x auxiliary functions f(x) and g(x) are employed
     * such that
     *
     * C(x) = 0.5 + f(x) sin( pi/2 x**2 ) - g(x) cos( pi/2 x**2 )
     * S(x) = 0.5 - f(x) cos( pi/2 x**2 ) - g(x) sin( pi/2 x**2 )
     *
     * Routine qfresfg computes f and g.
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Series expansions are truncated at less than full working precision.
     */
    
     
    /*							qlgam
     *
     *	Natural logarithm of gamma function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qlgam( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qlgam( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the base e (2.718...) logarithm of the absolute
     * value of the gamma function of the argument.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qgamma
     *
     *	Gamma function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qgamma( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qgamma( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns gamma function of the argument.
     *
     * qgamma(x) = exp(qlgam(x))
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							hyp2f1.c
     *
     *	Gauss hypergeometric function   F
     *	                               2 1
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qhy2f1( a, b, c, x, y );
     * QELT *a, *b, *c, *x, *y;
     *
     * qhy2f1( a, b, c, x, y );
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     *
     *  hyp2f1( a, b, c, x )  =   F ( a, b; c; x )
     *                           2 1
     *
     *           inf.
     *            -   a(a+1)...(a+k) b(b+1)...(b+k)   k+1
     *   =  1 +   >   -----------------------------  x   .
     *            -         c(c+1)...(c+k) (k+1)!
     *          k = 0
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Expansions are set to terminate at less than full working precision.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qhyp.c
     *
     *	Confluent hypergeometric function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qhyp( a, b, x, y );
     * QELT *a, *b, *x, *y;
     *
     * qhyp( a, b, x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Computes the confluent hypergeometric function
     *
     *                          1           2
     *                       a x    a(a+1) x
     *   F ( a,b;x )  =  1 + ---- + --------- + ...
     *  1 1                  b 1!   b(b+1) 2!
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Series expansion is truncated at less than full working precision.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qigam.c
     *	Check routine for incomplete gamma integral
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * For the left tail:
     * int qigam( a, x, y );
     * QELT *a, *x, *y;
     * qigam( a, x, y );
     *
     * For the right tail:
     * int qigamc( a, x, y );
     * QELT *a, *x, *y;
     * qigamc( a, x, y );
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * The function is defined by
     *
     *                           x
     *                            -
     *                   1       | |  -t  a-1
     *  igam(a,x)  =   -----     |   e   t   dt.
     *                  -      | |
     *                 | (a)    -
     *                           0
     *
     *
     * In this implementation both arguments must be positive.
     * The integral is evaluated by either a power series or
     * continued fraction expansion, depending on the relative
     * values of a and x.
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Expansions terminate at less than full working precision.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qigami()
     *
     *      Inverse of complemented imcomplete gamma integral
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qigami( a, p, x );
     * QELT *a, *p, *x;
     *
     * qigami( a, p, x );
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * The program refines an initial estimate generated by the
     * double precision routine igami to find the root of
     *
     *  igamc(a,x) - p = 0.
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Set to do just one Newton-Raphson iteration.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qin.c
     *
     *	Modified Bessel function I of noninteger order
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qin( v, x, y );
     * QELT *v, *x, *y;
     *
     * qin( v, x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns modified Bessel function of order v of the
     * argument.
     *
     * The power series is
     *
     *                inf      2   k
     *              v  -     (z /4)
     * I (z) = (z/2)   >  --------------
     *  v              -       -
     *                k=0  k! | (v+k+1)
     *
     *
     * For large x,
     *                                    2          2       2
     *             exp(z)            u - 1     (u - 1 )(u - 3 )
     * I (z)  =  ------------ { 1 - -------- + ---------------- + ...}
     *  v        sqrt(2 pi z)              1              2
     *                              1! (8z)        2! (8z)
     *
     * asymptotically, where
     * 
     *            2
     *     u = 4 v .
     * 
     *
     * x <= 0 is not supported.
     *
     * Series expansion is truncated at less than full working precision.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qincb.c
     *
     *	Incomplete beta integral
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qincb( a, b, x, y );
     * QELT *a, *b, *x, *y;
     *
     * qincb( a, b, x, y );
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns incomplete beta integral of the arguments, evaluated
     * from zero to x.
     *
     *                  x
     *     -            -
     *    | (a+b)      | |  a-1     b-1
     *  -----------    |   t   (1-t)   dt.
     *   -     -     | |
     *  | (a) | (b)   -
     *                 0
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Series expansions terminate at less than full working precision.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qincbi()
     *
     *      Inverse of imcomplete beta integral
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * double a, b, x, y, incbi();
     *
     * x = incbi( a, b, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Given y, the function finds x such that
     *
     *  incbet( a, b, x ) = y.
     *
     * the routine performs up to 10 Newton iterations to find the
     * root of incbet(a,b,x) - y = 0.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qine.c
     *
     *	Modified Bessel function I of noninteger order
     *      Exponentially scaled
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qine( v, x, y );
     * QELT *v, *x, *y;
     *
     * qine( v, x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns modified Bessel function of order v of the
     * argument.
     *
     * The power series is
     *
     *                inf      2   k
     *              v  -     (z /4)
     * I (z) = (z/2)   >  --------------
     *  v              -       -
     *                k=0  k! | (v+k+1)
     *
     *
     * For large x,
     *                                    2          2       2
     *             exp(z)            u - 1     (u - 1 )(u - 3 )
     * I (z)  =  ------------ { 1 - -------- + ---------------- + ...}
     *  v        sqrt(2 pi z)              1              2
     *                              1! (8z)        2! (8z)
     *
     * asymptotically, where
     * 
     *            2
     *     u = 4 v .
     * 
     * 
     * The routine returns
     *
     *    sqrt(x) exp(-x) I (x)
     *                     v
     *
     * x <= 0 is not supported.
     *
     * Series expansion is truncated at less than full working precision.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qjn.c
     *
     *	Bessel function of noninteger order
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qjn( v, x, y );
     * QELT *v, *x, *y;
     *
     * qjn( v, x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns Bessel function of order v of the argument,
     * where v is real.  Negative x is allowed if v is an integer.
     *
     * Two expansions are used: the ascending power series and the
     * Hankel expansion for large v.  If v is not too large, it
     * is reduced by recurrence to a region of better accuracy.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							kn.c
     *
     *	Modified Bessel function, third kind, integer order
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qkn( n, x, y );
     * int n;
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qkn( n, x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns modified Bessel function of the third kind
     * of order n of the argument.
     *
     * The range is partitioned into the two intervals [0,9.55] and
     * (9.55, infinity).  An ascending power series is used in the
     * low range, and an asymptotic expansion in the high range.
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Series expansions are set to terminate at less than full
     * working precision.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*   qkne.c
     *
     *  exp(x) sqrt(x) Kn(x)
     */
    
     
    /*							qlog.c
     *
     *	Natural logarithm
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qlog( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qlog( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the base e (2.718...) logarithm of x.
     *
     * After reducing the argument into the interval [1/sqrt(2), sqrt(2)],
     * the logarithm is calculated by
     *
     *       x-1
     * w  =  ---
     *       x+1
     *                     3     5
     *                    w     w
     * ln(x) / 2  =  w + --- + --- + ...
     *                    3     5
     */
    
     
    /*							qlog1.c
     *
     *	Relative error logarithm
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qlog1( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qlog1( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the base e (2.718...) logarithm of 1 + x.
     *
     * For small x, this continued fraction is used:
     * 
     *     1+z
     * w = ---
     *     1-z
     *
     *               2   2   2
     *         2z   z  4z  9z
     * ln(w) = --- --- --- --- ...
     *         1 - 3 - 5 - 7 -
     *
     * after setting z = x/(x+2).
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qlog10.c
     *
     *	Common logarithm
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qlog10( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qlog10( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns base 10, or common, logarithm of x.
     *
     * log  (x) = log  (e) log (x)
     *    10         10       e
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qndtr.c
     *
     *	Normal distribution function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qndtr( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qndtr( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the area under the Gaussian probability density
     * function, integrated from minus infinity to x:
     *
     *                            x
     *                             -
     *                   1        | |          2
     *    ndtr(x)  = ---------    |    exp( - t /2 ) dt
     *               sqrt(2pi)  | |
     *                           -
     *                          -inf.
     *
     *             =  ( 1 + erf(z) ) / 2
     *             =  erfc(z) / 2
     *
     * where z = x/sqrt(2).
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qndtri.c
     *
     *	Inverse of Normal distribution function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qndtri(y, x);
     * QELT *y, *x;
     *
     * qndtri(y, x);
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the argument, x, for which the area under the
     * Gaussian probability density function (integrated from
     * minus infinity to x) is equal to y.
     *
     * The routine refines a trial solution computed by the double
     * precision function ndtri.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qplanck.c
     *  Integral of Planck's radiation formula.
     *
     *                                       1
     *                                ------------------
     *                                 5
     *                                t  (exp(1/bw) - 1)
     *
     * Set
     *   b = T/c2
     *   u = exp(1/bw)
     *
     *  In terms of polylogarithms Li_n(u)¸ the integral is
     *
     *                  (           Li (u)      Li (u)                  )
     *     1          4 (              3           2          log(1-u)  )
     *    ----  -  6 b  ( Li (u)  -  ------  +  --------  +  ---------- )
     *       4          (   4          bw              2             3  )
     *    4 w           (                        2 (bw)        6 (bw)   )
     *
     *   Since u > 1, the Li_n are complex valued.  This is not
     * the best way to calculate the result, which is real, but it
     * is adopted as a the priori formula against which other formulas
     * can be verified.
     */
    
     
    /*							qpolylog.c
     *
       Polylogarithms.
    
    
                   inf   k
                    -   x
       Li (x)  =    >   ---
         n          -     n
                   k=1   k
    
    
                     x
                      -
                     | |  -ln(1-t)
        Li (x)  =    |    -------- dt
          2        | |       t
                    -
                     0
    
    
                    1-x
                      -
                     | |  ln t
                =    |    ------ dt   =   spence(1-x)
                   | |    1 - t
                    -
                     1
    
    
                            2       3
                           x       x
                 =  x  +  ---  +  ---  +  ...
                           4       9
    
    
      d                 1
      --   Li (x)  =   ---  Li   (x)
      dx     n          x     n-1
    
      Series expansions are set to terminate at less than full
      working precision.
    
      */
    
     
    /*							qpolyr.c
     *
     * Arithmetic operations on polynomials with rational coefficients
     *
     * In the following descriptions a, b, c are polynomials of degree
     * na, nb, nc respectively.  The degree of a polynomial cannot
     * exceed a run-time value MAXPOL.  An operation that attempts
     * to use or generate a polynomial of higher degree may produce a
     * result that suffers truncation at degree MAXPOL.  The value of
     * MAXPOL is set by calling the function
     *
     *     polini( maxpol );
     *
     * where maxpol is the desired maximum degree.  This must be
     * done prior to calling any of the other functions in this module.
     * Memory for internal temporary polynomial storage is allocated
     * by polini().
     *
     * Each polynomial is represented by an array containing its
     * coefficients, together with a separately declared integer equal
     * to the degree of the polynomial.  The coefficients appear in
     * ascending order; that is,
     *
     *                                        2                      na
     * a(x)  =  a[0]  +  a[1] * x  +  a[2] * x   +  ...  +  a[na] * x  .
     *
     *
     *
     * sum = poleva( a, na, x );	Evaluate polynomial a(t) at t = x.
     * polprt( a, na, D );		Print the coefficients of a to D digits.
     * polclr( a, na );		Set a identically equal to zero, up to a[na].
     * polmov( a, na, b );		Set b = a.
     * poladd( a, na, b, nb, c );	c = b + a, nc = max(na,nb)
     * polsub( a, na, b, nb, c );	c = b - a, nc = max(na,nb)
     * polmul( a, na, b, nb, c );	c = b * a, nc = na+nb
     *
     *
     * Division:
     *
     * i = poldiv( a, na, b, nb, c );	c = b / a, nc = MAXPOL
     *
     * returns i = the degree of the first nonzero coefficient of a.
     * The computed quotient c must be divided by x^i.  An error message
     * is printed if a is identically zero.
     *
     *
     * Change of variables:
     * If a and b are polynomials, and t = a(x), then
     *     c(t) = b(a(x))
     * is a polynomial found by substituting a(x) for t.  The
     * subroutine call for this is
     *
     * polsbt( a, na, b, nb, c );
     *
     *
     * Notes:
     * poldiv() is an integer routine; poleva() is double.
     * Any of the arguments a, b, c may refer to the same array.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*						qpow
     *
     *	Power function check routine
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qpow( x, y, z );
     * QELT *x, *y, *z;
     *
     * qpow( x, y, z );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Computes x raised to the yth power.
     *
     *       y
     *      x  =  exp( y log(x) ).
     *
     */
    
     
    /*  qprob.c  */
    /* various probability integrals
     * computed via incomplete beta and gamma integrals
     */
    
     
    /*							qbdtr
     *
     *	Binomial distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qbdtr( k, n, p, y );
     * int k, n;
     * QELT *p, *y;
     *
     * qbdtr( k, n, p, y );
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns (in y) the sum of the terms 0 through k of the Binomial
     * probability density:
     *
     *   k
     *   --  ( n )   j      n-j
     *   >   (   )  p  (1-p)
     *   --  ( j )
     *  j=0
     *
     * The terms are not summed directly; instead the incomplete
     * beta integral is employed, according to the formula
     *
     * y = bdtr( k, n, p ) = incbet( n-k, k+1, 1-p ).
     *
     * The arguments must be positive, with p ranging from 0 to 1.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qbdtrc
     *
     *	Complemented binomial distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qbdtrc( k, n, p, y );
     * int k, n;
     * QELT *p, *y;
     *
     * y = qbdtrc( k, n, p, y );
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the sum of the terms k+1 through n of the Binomial
     * probability density:
     *
     *   n
     *   --  ( n )   j      n-j
     *   >   (   )  p  (1-p)
     *   --  ( j )
     *  j=k+1
     *
     * The terms are not summed directly; instead the incomplete
     * beta integral is employed, according to the formula
     *
     * y = bdtrc( k, n, p ) = incbet( k+1, n-k, p ).
     *
     * The arguments must be positive, with p ranging from 0 to 1.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qbdtri
     *
     *	Inverse binomial distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qbdtri( k, n, y, p );
     * int k, n;
     * QELT *p, *y;
     *
     * qbdtri( k, n, y, p );
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Finds the event probability p such that the sum of the
     * terms 0 through k of the Binomial probability density
     * is equal to the given cumulative probability y.
     *
     * This is accomplished using the inverse beta integral
     * function and the relation
     *
     * 1 - p = incbi( n-k, k+1, y ).
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qchdtr
     *
     *	Chi-square distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qchdtr( df, x, y );
     * QELT *df, *x, *y;
     *
     * qchdtr( df, x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the area under the left hand tail (from 0 to x)
     * of the Chi square probability density function with
     * v degrees of freedom.
     *
     *
     *                                  inf.
     *                                    -
     *                        1          | |  v/2-1  -t/2
     *  P( x | v )   =   -----------     |   t      e     dt
     *                    v/2  -       | |
     *                   2    | (v/2)   -
     *                                   x
     *
     * where x is the Chi-square variable.
     *
     * The incomplete gamma integral is used, according to the
     * formula
     *
     *	y = chdtr( v, x ) = igam( v/2.0, x/2.0 ).
     *
     *
     * The arguments must both be positive.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qchdtc
     *
     *	Complemented Chi-square distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qchdtc( df, x, y );
     * QELT df[], x[], y[];
     *
     * qchdtc( df, x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the area under the right hand tail (from x to
     * infinity) of the Chi square probability density function
     * with v degrees of freedom:
     *
     *
     *                                  inf.
     *                                    -
     *                        1          | |  v/2-1  -t/2
     *  P( x | v )   =   -----------     |   t      e     dt
     *                    v/2  -       | |
     *                   2    | (v/2)   -
     *                                   x
     *
     * where x is the Chi-square variable.
     *
     * The incomplete gamma integral is used, according to the
     * formula
     *
     *	y = chdtr( v, x ) = igamc( v/2.0, x/2.0 ).
     *
     *
     * The arguments must both be positive.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qchdti
     *
     *	Inverse of complemented Chi-square distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qchdti( df, y, x );
     * QELT *df, *x, *y;
     *
     * qchdti( df, y, x );
     *
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Finds the Chi-square argument x such that the integral
     * from x to infinity of the Chi-square density is equal
     * to the given cumulative probability y.
     *
     * This is accomplished using the inverse gamma integral
     * function and the relation
     *
     *    x/2 = igami( df/2, y );
     *
     *
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * See igami.c.
     *
     * ERROR MESSAGES:
     *
     *   message         condition      value returned
     * chdtri domain   y < 0 or y > 1        0.0
     *                     v < 1
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qfdtr
     *
     *	F distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qfdtr( ia, ib, x, y );
     * int ia, ib;
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qfdtr( ia, ib, x, y );
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the area from zero to x under the F density
     * function (also known as Snedcor's density or the
     * variance ratio density).  This is the density
     * of x = (u1/df1)/(u2/df2), where u1 and u2 are random
     * variables having Chi square distributions with df1
     * and df2 degrees of freedom, respectively.
     *
     * The incomplete beta integral is used, according to the
     * formula
     *
     *	P(x) = incbet( df1/2, df2/2, (df1*x/(df2 + df1*x) ).
     *
     *
     * The arguments a and b are greater than zero, and x is
     * nonnegative.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qfdtrc
     *
     *	Complemented F distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qfdtrc( ia, ib, x, y );
     * int ia, ib;
     * QELT x[], y[];
     *
     * qfdtrc( ia, ib, x, y );
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the area from x to infinity under the F density
     * function (also known as Snedcor's density or the
     * variance ratio density).
     *
     *
     *                      inf.
     *                       -
     *              1       | |  a-1      b-1
     * 1-P(x)  =  ------    |   t    (1-t)    dt
     *            B(a,b)  | |
     *                     -
     *                      x
     *
     *
     * The incomplete beta integral is used, according to the
     * formula
     *
     *	P(x) = incbet( df2/2, df1/2, (df2/(df2 + df1*x) ).
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qfdtri
     *
     *	Inverse of complemented F distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qfdtri( ia, ib, y, x );
     * int ia, ib;
     * QELT x[], y[];
     *
     * qfdtri( ia, ib, y, x );
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Finds the F density argument x such that the integral
     * from x to infinity of the F density is equal to the
     * given probability p.
     *
     * This is accomplished using the inverse beta integral
     * function and the relations
     *
     *      z = incbi( df2/2, df1/2, p )
     *      x = df2 (1-z) / (df1 z).
     *
     * Note: the following relations hold for the inverse of
     * the uncomplemented F distribution:
     *
     *      z = incbi( df1/2, df2/2, p )
     *      x = df2 z / (df1 (1-z)).
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qgdtr
     *
     *	Gamma distribution function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qgdtr( a, b, x, y );
     * QELT *a, *b, *x, *y;
     *
     * qgdtr( a, b, x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the integral from zero to x of the gamma probability
     * density function:
     *
     *
     *                x
     *        b       -
     *       a       | |   b-1  -at
     * y =  -----    |    t    e    dt
     *       -     | |
     *      | (b)   -
     *               0
     *
     *  The incomplete gamma integral is used, according to the
     * relation
     *
     * y = igam( b, ax ).
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qgdtrc
     *
     *	Complemented gamma distribution function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qgdtrc( a, b, x, y );
     * QELT *a, *b, *x, *y;
     *
     * qgdtrc( a, b, x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the integral from x to infinity of the gamma
     * probability density function:
     *
     *
     *               inf.
     *        b       -
     *       a       | |   b-1  -at
     * y =  -----    |    t    e    dt
     *       -     | |
     *      | (b)   -
     *               x
     *
     *  The incomplete gamma integral is used, according to the
     * relation
     *
     * y = igamc( b, ax ).
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qnbdtr
     *
     *	Negative binomial distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qnbdtr( k, n, p, y );
     * int k, n;
     * QELT *p, *y;
     *
     * qnbdtr( k, n, p, y );
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the sum of the terms 0 through k of the negative
     * binomial distribution:
     *
     *   k
     *   --  ( n+j-1 )   n      j
     *   >   (       )  p  (1-p)
     *   --  (   j   )
     *  j=0
     *
     * In a sequence of Bernoulli trials, this is the probability
     * that k or fewer failures precede the nth success.
     *
     * The terms are not computed individually; instead the incomplete
     * beta integral is employed, according to the formula
     *
     * y = nbdtr( k, n, p ) = incbet( n, k+1, p ).
     *
     * The arguments must be positive, with p ranging from 0 to 1.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qnbdtc
     *
     *	Complemented negative binomial distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qnbdtc( k, n, p, y );
     * int k, n;
     * QELT *p, *y;
     *
     * qnbdtc( k, n, p, y );
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the sum of the terms k+1 to infinity of the negative
     * binomial distribution:
     *
     *   inf
     *   --  ( n+j-1 )   n      j
     *   >   (       )  p  (1-p)
     *   --  (   j   )
     *  j=k+1
     *
     * The terms are not computed individually; instead the incomplete
     * beta integral is employed, according to the formula
     *
     * y = nbdtrc( k, n, p ) = incbet( k+1, n, 1-p ).
     *
     * The arguments must be positive, with p ranging from 0 to 1.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qpdtr
     *
     *	Poisson distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qpdtr( k, m, y );
     * int k;
     * QELT *m, *y;
     *
     * qpdtr( k, m, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the sum of the first k terms of the Poisson
     * distribution:
     *
     *   k         j
     *   --   -m  m
     *   >   e    --
     *   --       j!
     *  j=0
     *
     * The terms are not summed directly; instead the incomplete
     * gamma integral is employed, according to the relation
     *
     * y = pdtr( k, m ) = igamc( k+1, m ).
     *
     * The arguments must both be positive.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qpdtrc
     *
     *	Complemented poisson distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qpdtrc( k, m, y );
     * int k;
     * QELT *m, *y;
     *
     * qpdtrc( k, m, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the sum of the terms k+1 to infinity of the Poisson
     * distribution:
     *
     *  inf.       j
     *   --   -m  m
     *   >   e    --
     *   --       j!
     *  j=k+1
     *
     * The terms are not summed directly; instead the incomplete
     * gamma integral is employed, according to the formula
     *
     * y = pdtrc( k, m ) = igam( k+1, m ).
     *
     * The arguments must both be positive.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qpdtri
     *
     *	Inverse Poisson distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qpdtri( k, y, m );
     * int k;
     * QELT *m, *y;
     *
     * qpdtri( k, y, m );
     *
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Finds the Poisson variable x such that the integral
     * from 0 to x of the Poisson density is equal to the
     * given probability y.
     *
     * This is accomplished using the inverse gamma integral
     * function and the relation
     *
     *    m = igami( k+1, y ).
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qpsi.c
     *	Psi (digamma) function check routine
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qpsi( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qpsi( x, y );
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     *              d      -
     *   psi(x)  =  -- ln | (x)
     *              dx
     *
     * is the logarithmic derivative of the gamma function.
     * For general positive x, the argument is made greater than 16
     * using the recurrence  psi(x+1) = psi(x) + 1/x.
     * Then the following asymptotic expansion is applied:
     *
     *                           inf.   B
     *                            -      2k
     * psi(x) = log(x) - 1/2x -   >   -------
     *                            -        2k
     *                           k=1   2k x
     *
     * where the B2k are Bernoulli numbers.
     *
     * psi(-x)  =  psi(x+1) + pi/tan(pi(x+1))
     */
    
     
    /*							qrand.c
     *
     *	Pseudorandom number generator
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qrand( q );
     * QELT q[NQ];
     *
     * qrand( q );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Yields a random number 1.0 <= q < 2.0.
     *
     * A three-generator congruential algorithm adapted from Brian
     * Wichmann and David Hill (BYTE magazine, March, 1987,
     * pp 127-8) is used to generate random 16-bit integers.
     * These are copied into the significand area to produce
     * a pseudorandom bit pattern.
     */
    
     
    /*							qshici.c
     *
     *	Hyperbolic sine and cosine integrals
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qshici( x, si, ci );
     * QELT *x, *si, *ci;
     *
     * qshici( x, si, ci );
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     *
     *                            x
     *                            -
     *                           | |   cosh t - 1
     *   Chi(x) = eul + ln x +   |    -----------  dt
     *                         | |          t
     *                          -
     *                          0
     *
     *               x
     *               -
     *              | |  sinh t
     *   Shi(x) =   |    ------  dt
     *            | |       t
     *             -
     *             0
     *
     * where eul = 0.57721566490153286061 is Euler's constant.
     *
     * The power series are
     *
     *           inf        2n+1
     *            -        z
     * Shi(z)  =  >  --------------
     *            -  (2n+1) (2n+1)!
     *           n=0
     *
     *                             inf      2n
     *                              -      z
     * Chi(z)  =  eul +  ln(z)  +   >  -----------
     *                              -    2n (2n)!
     *                             n=1
     *
     * Asymptotically,
     *
     *           
     *     -x                1   2!   3!
     * 2x e   Shi(x)  =  1 + - + -- + -- + ...
     *                       x    2    3
     *                           x    x
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Series expansions are set to terminate at less than full
     * working precision.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qsici.c
     *	Sine and cosine integrals
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qsici( x, si, ci );
     * QELT *x, *si, *ci;
     *
     * qsici( x, si, ci );
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Evaluates the integrals
     *
     *                          x
     *                          -
     *                         |  cos t - 1
     *   Ci(x) = eul + ln x +  |  --------- dt,
     *                         |      t
     *                        -
     *                         0
     *             x
     *             -
     *            |  sin t
     *   Si(x) =  |  ----- dt
     *            |    t
     *           -
     *            0
     *
     * where eul = 0.57721566490153286061 is Euler's constant.
     *
     * The power series are
     *
     *          inf      n  2n+1
     *           -   (-1)  z
     * Si(z)  =  >  --------------
     *           -  (2n+1) (2n+1)!
     *          n=0
     *
     *                            inf      n  2n
     *                             -   (-1)  z
     * Ci(z)  =  eul +  ln(z)  +   >  -----------
     *                             -    2n (2n)!
     *                            n=1
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Series expansions are set to terminate at less than full
     * working precision.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qsimq.c
     *
     *	Solution of simultaneous linear equations AX = B
     *	by Gaussian elimination with partial pivoting
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * double A[n*n], B[n], X[n];
     * int n, flag;
     * int IPS[];
     * int simq();
     *
     * ercode = simq( A, B, X, n, flag, IPS );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * B, X, IPS are vectors of length n.
     * A is an n x n matrix (i.e., a vector of length n*n),
     * stored row-wise: that is, A(i,j) = A[ij],
     * where ij = i*n + j, which is the transpose of the normal
     * column-wise storage.
     *
     * The contents of matrix A are destroyed.
     *
     * Set flag=0 to solve.
     * Set flag=-1 to do a new back substitution for different B vector
     * using the same A matrix previously reduced when flag=0.
     *
     * The routine returns nonzero on error; messages are printed.
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Depends on the conditioning (range of eigenvalues) of matrix A.
     *
     *
     * REFERENCE:
     *
     * Computer Solution of Linear Algebraic Systems,
     * by George E. Forsythe and Cleve B. Moler; Prentice-Hall, 1967.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qsin.c
     *      Circular sine check routine
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qsin( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qsin( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Range reduction is into intervals of pi/2.
     * Then
     *
     *               3    5    7
     *              z    z    z
     * sin(z) = z - -- + -- - -- + ...
     *              3!   5!   7!
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qsindg.c
     *
     * sin, cos, tan in degrees
     */
    
     
    /*							qsinh.c
     *
     *	Hyperbolic sine check routine
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qsinh( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qsinh( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * The range is partitioned into two segments.  If |x| <= 1/4,
     *
     *                3    5    7
     *               x    x    x
     * sinh(x) = x + -- + -- + -- + ...
     *               3!   5!   7!
     *
     * Otherwise the calculation is sinh(x) = ( exp(x) - exp(-x) )/2.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qspenc.c
     *
     *	Dilogarithm
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qspenc( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qspenc( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Computes the integral
     *
     *                    x
     *                    -
     *                   | | log t
     * spence(x)  =  -   |   ----- dt
     *                 | |   t - 1
     *                  -
     *                  1
     *
     * for x >= 0.  A power series gives the integral in
     * the interval (0.5, 1.5).  Transformation formulas for 1/x
     * and 1-x are employed outside the basic expansion range.
     *
     *
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qsqrt.c
     *      Square root check routine
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qsqrt( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qsqrt( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns the square root of x.
     *
     * Range reduction involves isolating the power of two of the
     * argument and using a polynomial approximation to obtain
     * a rough value for the square root.  Then Heron's iteration
     * is used to converge to an accurate value.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*	qsqrta.c		*/
    /* Square root check routine, done by long division. */
    /* Copyright (C) 1984-1988 by Stephen L. Moshier. */
    
     
    /*							qstdtr.c
     *
     *	Student's t distribution
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qstudt( k, t, y );
     * int k;
     * QELT *t, *y;
     *
     * qstudt( k, t, y );
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Computes the integral from minus infinity to t of the Student
     * t distribution with integer k > 0 degrees of freedom:
     *
     *                                      t
     *                                      -
     *                                     | |
     *              -                      |         2   -(k+1)/2
     *             | ( (k+1)/2 )           |  (     x   )
     *       ----------------------        |  ( 1 + --- )        dx
     *                     -               |  (      k  )
     *       sqrt( k pi ) | ( k/2 )        |
     *                                   | |
     *                                    -
     *                                   -inf.
     * 
     * Relation to incomplete beta integral:
     *
     *        1 - stdtr(k,t) = 0.5 * incbet( k/2, 1/2, z )
     * where
     *        z = k/(k + t**2).
     *
     * For t < -2, this is the method of computation.  For higher t,
     * a direct method is derived from integration by parts.
     * Since the function is symmetric about t=0, the area under the
     * right tail of the density is found by calling the function
     * with -t instead of t.
     * 
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qtan.c
     *      Circular tangent check routine
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qtan( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qtan( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Domain of approximation is reduced by the transformation
     *
     * x -> x - pi floor((x + pi/2)/pi)
     *
     *
     * then tan(x) is the continued fraction
     *
     *                  2   2   2
     *             x   x   x   x
     * tan(x)  =  --- --- --- --- ...
     *            1 - 3 - 5 - 7 -
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qcot
     *
     *	Circular cotangent check routine
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qcot( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qcot( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * cot (x) = 1 / tan (x).
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qtanh.c
     *      Hyperbolic tangent check routine
     *
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qtanh( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qtanh( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * For x >= 1 the program uses the definition
     *
     *             exp(x) - exp(-x)
     * tanh(x)  =  ----------------
     *             exp(x) + exp(-x)
     *
     *
     * For x < 1 the method is a continued fraction
     *
     *                   2   2   2
     *              x   x   x   x
     * tanh(x)  =  --- --- --- --- ...
     *              1+  3+  5+  7+
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qyn.c
     *
     *	Real bessel function of second kind and general order.
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qyn( v, x, y );
     * QELT *v, *x, *y;
     *
     * qyn( v, x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     * Returns Bessel function of order v.
     * If v is not an integer, the result is
     *
     *    Y (z) = ( cos(pi v) * J (x) - J  (x) )/sin(pi v)
     *     v                     v       -v
     *
     * Hankel's expansion is used for large x:
     *
     * Y (z) = sqrt(2/(pi z)) (P sin w + Q cos w)
     *  v
     *
     * w = z - (.5 v + .25) pi
     *
     *
     *         (u-1)(u-9)   (u-1)(u-9)(u-25)(u-49)
     * P = 1 - ---------- + ---------------------- - ...
     *                 2                  4
     *          2! (8z)            4! (8z)
     *
     *
     *      (u-1)    (u-1)(u-9)(u-25)
     * Q =  -----  - ---------------- + ...
     *        8z                3
     *                   3! (8z)
     *
     *         2
     *  u = 4 v
     *
     * (AMS55 #9.2.6).
     *
     *
     *                 -n   n-1
     *           -(z/2)      -  (n-k-1)!   2    k
     * Y (z)  =  -------     >  -------- (z / 4)   +  (2/pi) ln (z/2) J (z)
     *  n           pi       -     k!                                  n
     *                      k=0
     *
     *
     *                  n     inf                             2    k
     *             (z/2)       -                          (- z / 4)
     *           - ------  -   >  (psi(k+1) + psi(n+k+1)) ----------
     *               pi        -                            k!(n+k)!
     *                        k=0
     *
     *  (AMS55 #9.1.11).
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Series expansions are set to terminate at less than full working
     * precision.
     *
     */
    
     
    /*							qzetac.c
     *
     *	Riemann zeta function
     *
     *
     *
     * SYNOPSIS:
     *
     * int qzetac( x, y );
     * QELT *x, *y;
     *
     * qzetac( x, y );
     *
     *
     *
     * DESCRIPTION:
     *
     *
     *
     *                inf.
     *                 -    -x
     *   zetac(x)  =   >   k   ,   x > 1,
     *                 -
     *                k=2
     *
     * is related to the Riemann zeta function by
     *
     *	Riemann zeta(x) = zetac(x) + 1.
     *
     * Extension of the function definition for x < 1 is implemented.
     *
     *
     * ACCURACY:
     *
     * Series summation terminates at NBITS/2.
     *
     */
    

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    Last update: 31 July 2000